How to make any paper longer

The Roman orator Cicero came up with the following list of “Topics,” or questions to ask yourself when you can’t think of anything else to say.* Use them if you are having trouble writing your papers. Though not every topic will apply to every paper, each is good for at least a paragraph when it does.

Definition: What exactly are you talking about? If you are using any words or ideas that other people might understand differently, be sure to explain the way you mean them.

Example: Can you describe a situation that illustrates what you are talking about? Spend some time thinking about it, because a good example can sometimes carry the whole paper.

Comparison: Is what you are talking about similar to something else? More or less? Use comparisons to bring your point into focus. Never say that something is just “big” when you can say it is “as big as” <this> or “bigger than” <that>.

Causes: What makes this so? Why is it like this? Explaining the causes will often help your reader understand more clearly what you are talking about.

Effects: What results from it? What difference does it make? What does it mean? Explaining the effects helps your reader understand more clearly why it matters.

Contraries: What aren’t you saying? What other views are you disagreeing with? Instead of just saying “B,” it makes your point clearer to say “Not A, or C, but B!” One particularly helpful approach is to explain old ideas of your own, how you changed your mind, and why.

Evidence: How do you know? Are there people, or facts, or arguments that support what you say? If you are saying that an author says something, be sure to show where in the text he or she actually says it, using a proper footnote format. If there is anything out there backing you up, anything at all, be sure to take advantage of it.